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EDUCATION  DEPT. 


THE    PRINCIPLES 


—OF- 


ENGLISH    SYNTAX 


SECOND  EDITION. 


WILLIAM  RICHARDSON,  A.M.,  Ph.D. 

I' 

Chair  of  English  Language  and   Literature,  State  Normal  School, 

Missouri. 


]898. 

The  Williams  Publishing  and  Electric  Co. 

Cleveland,  O. 


Vopvno-lncd.  1892, 
By  William  Richardson. 

EDUCATION  DEPT4 


This  little  book  appears  in  response  to  many  urgent  re- 
quests from  friends  who,  at  some  time,  have  been  under 
the  author's  tuition  or  supervision,  and  who  believe,  with 
him,  that  instruction  in  English  grammar  may  be  much 
simplified;  that  often  too  much  time  is  spent  in  going  over 
unimportant  details  in  parsing  and  analysis;  and  that  the 
abilitv  to  illustrate  synthetically  every  principle  of  syntax, 
and  to  correct  any  violation  thereof,  is  of  greater  value  than 
is  generally  considered. 


M69916 


INDEX 


PAGC 

Abridgment 17 

Adjective— Used  Abstractly ; 9 

"  Limiting  Phrase  or  Clause 9 

"  For  Adverb 9 

"  As  Noun 9 

''  Limiting  Complex  Nouns 9 

"  Predicate 9 

Adverb— Uses 13-14- 

Adverbial  Objective 8 

Analysis 19 

Antique  Forms 27 

Alike— Uses 28 

As— Uses , 29 

As— If  (ellipsis) 23 

As— As,  So— As 26 

Apposition 4- 

"  with  Phrase  or  Clause 5 

But 31 

Conjunction— Co-ordinate 15-26 

"  Subordinate 16 

"  Correlative 26 

Connectives 16-23 

Copula 22 

Copulative  Verbs 23 

Complex  Verbs 14- 

Clause— Uses 20 

Object 6 

Double  Object 6 

Double  Relative 17-18 

Elements— Kinds 21 

.For — Introductorv 33 


n.  INDEX. 

How— Adjective 23-34 

Adverb 35 

Independent  Case 3 

J^il^e 8-23-36 

Make— Factitive 7 

Nominative  Case 1-2-3-5 

Object— Direct 6 

Double 6 

Indirect 6 

Without  Governing  Word 8 

Vvith  Passive  Voice 7 

Kindred  Signification 7 

Objective— Subject  and  Predicate 3 

Ought. 39 

Only 38 

Participles— Uses 10 

Possessive— Of  Ownership 4 

"  By  Apposition 5 

Without  Sign 5 

Phrase— Uses 6-21 

**  Inseparable 21 

Possessive  Pronouns 34- 

Prepositions — List 24 

Uses 15 

Pronouns — Agreement 8 

Sentence — Kinds 19-20 

Since 40 

So 41 

Synthesis 19 

Than 41 

Verbs — Factitive 7 

"         Agreement 11-12 

Infinitive 12-13 

What 18-43 

Which : 18-44 

Whatever 18 


THE   RULES  OF  SYNTAX. 


The  following  principles  of  construction  are  observed  bv  the 
best  writers  of  the  English  language,  and  are,  therefore,  the 
Rules  of  Syntax. 

RULE  I. 

The  subject  of  a  finite  verb  must  be  in  tne  nominative  case. 

1.  The  subject  may  be  placed  before  the  verb. 
''  The  day  is  dawning." 

*'  Man  goeth  forth  to  his  work." 

2.  The  subject  may  be  placed  after  the  verb. 
"Go  thou  to  the  ant." 

"Straight  is  the  gate,  and  narrow  is  the  way." 
"  There  was  a  man  in  the  land  of  Uz." 

3.  The  subject  may  be  placed  after  the  first  auxiliary. 
*'  Can  mortal  man  be  more  just  than  God  ?  " 
"What  did  he  say?" 

4.  The  subject  may  be  a  word. 
"The  snow  falls." 

•'Seeing  is  believing." 

5.  The  subject  may  be  a  phrase. 
■*'io  see  is  to  believe." 

'•  To  seek  preferment  is  the  privilege  of  American  citizens.*' 

6.  The  subject  may  be  a  clause. 

"  That  you  have  wronged  me  doth  appear  in  this." 


2  THE  PRINCIPLES  OF 

"Whence    he    received    snch    information    is  a  matter  of 
interest  to  the  court." 
'^pprme  to  Jabo/  an(!  tor  3011  to  be  idle  would  be  unjust." 

RULE  II. 

A  noun  or  pronoun  used  with  a  finite  verb  to  form  thepredi- 
c'ate  of  a  sentence  must  be  in  the  nominative  case. 

1.  The  predicate  nominative  may  be  a  word. 
"  Thou  art  the  man." 

"  And  am  1  he  that  is  thus  accused  ?  " 

"  He  returned  a  friend,  who  cam.e  a  foe." 

"She  looked  a  goddess,  and  she  walked  a  queen." 

"Arnold  was  called  a  traitor." 

"  Art  thou  that  traitor  angel  ?  " 

"  I  was  eyes  to  the  blind,  and  feet  was  I  to  the  lame." 

"  Do  you  know  who  she  is  ?  " 

"  Tis  most  just  that  thoii  turn  rascal." 

"  The  prisoner  is  supposed  to  be  a  murderer?  " 

2.  The  predicate  nominative  may  be  a  phrase. 
'*  To  be  good  is  to  be  happ3\" 

"  To  rise  high  in  noble  citizenship  is  to  honor  Ilim  who  hath 
given  power  and  privilege  to  man." 
"  To  purpose  is  not  necessarily  to  propose." 
"  To  be  friendless  is  to  be  without  friends." 

3.  The  predicate  nominative  may  be  a  clause. 
"  The  truth  is  that  I  am  tired  of  ticking." 

"  The  question  is,  Where  shall  we  obtain  witnesses  ?  ' 
"The  motion  before  the  house  is  tmderstood  to  be,  'That 
hereafter  no  base-ball  games  be  allowed  to  be  played  on  Sun- 
day.*" 

4.  In  many  abridged  forms  of  expression,  the  ^u^ite  verb 
gives  place  to  a  participle,  the  subject  of  the  finite  verb  l)ecom- 
ing  a  possessive  before  the  participle,  or  being  omitted.   In  such 


ENGLISH  SYNTAX.  d 

cases  the  predicate  nominative  remains  a  nominative,  thus 

forming  an  exception  to  the  rule. 

"  His  being  an  EngHshman  was  greatly  in  his  favor." 

"  They  were  ridiculed  for  being  a  peculiar  people." 

"  The  atrocious  crime  of  being  a  young  man  I  shall  attempt 

neither  to  palliate  nor  to  deny." 

"  How  many  are  injured  by  Adam's  fall,  who  know  nothing 

of  there  ever  having  been  such  a  mail  in  the  world  !  " 
"This  our  Saviour  Hims61,f   was    pleased   to    use    as    the 

strongest  argument  of  His  being  the  promised  Messiah." 
"  I  had  a  suspicion  of  the  fellow's  being  a  swindler." 
"Who  then  can  bear  the  thought  of  being  an  outcast  fiom 

his  presence?" 

5.  When  the  sentence  is  abridged  in  the  form  of  the  "nomi- 
native independent,  or  absolute,  with  a  participle,"  the  noun 

in  the  predicate  is  in  the  same  case. 
"Webster  being  a  recognized  authority,  we  consulted  him." 
"  Addison  being  an  author  of  the  purest  Enghsh,  we  advised 

the  class  to  imitate  his  style." 

RULE  HI. 
The  subject  of  an  itiiinitive  must  be  in  the  objective  case. 
"We  have  known  Mr.  Gough  to  cause  tears  and  laughter  at 
almost  the  same  instant." 
"All  wished  him  to  repeat  the  lecture." 
"  They  supposed  him  to  have  gone  by  another  route." 
"  The  officers  thought  the  man  to  be  guilty." 

RULE   IV. 
A  noun  or  pronoun   used   with   an   infinitive  to  form   the 
predicate  must  be  in  the  objective  case. 
*  I  supposed  you  to  have  been  the  man." 
'  They  thought  it  to  be  me." 


4  THE  PKINCIPLES  OF 

*'  Did  you  suspect  it.  to  have  been  us  ?  " 

"  Thev  believed  the  author  to  be  an  American." 

(When  the  objective  is  not  expressed  before  the  infinitive, 

analogy  would  require  a  noun   or  pronoun  in  the  predicate 

to  be  in  the  objective. ) 
"To    aflect    to    be    a    lord    in     one's    closet    would    be    a 

romantic  madness." 
"To  be  a  good  man  is  not  so  eas\'  a  thing  as  some  mav 

suppose?." 
"To  be  an  Englishman  in  London,  a  Spaniard  in  Madrid,  a 

Freochman  in  Paris,  is  no  easy  matter." 
"  It  is  better  to  be  a  scholar  than  a  gamester." 
"For  me  to  be  a  skeptic  would  be  quite  as  hard  as  for  you 

to  be  a  believer." 

[N*)te. — Rules  II.  and  IV.  may  with  propriety  be  given  asfol- 
^aws- — "  A  noun  or  pronoun  in  the  predicate  must  be  in  the 
same  rase  as  i*s  subject."] 

RULE  V. 

A  noun  or  pronoun  used  to  limit  the  meaning  of  a  noun 
denoting  a  different  person  or  thing  must  be  in  the  possess- 
ive case. 

"  Our  country's  history  is  interesting  to  foreigners." 

\' resident  Lincoln's  proclamation. 

"  Our  help  Cometh  from  the  Lord,  whose  right  hand  doeth 
\vot)d^ous  things." 

RULE  VI. 

h  Jioun  or  pronoun  used  to  limit  the  meaning  of  a  noun  or 
Tironoun  denoting  the  same  person  or  thing,  must  be  in  the 
same  case  by  apposition. 

"Webster, the  orator,  was  contemporaneous  with  Calhoun, 
the  statesman  " 


ENGLISH  SYNTAX.  5 

"Webster  the  statesman's  home  was  at  Marshfield,  Mass.'' 
"  This  is  Mrs.  Brown,  she  that  was  Daisy  Fa}-." 
"We,  the  people  of  the  United  States." 
"Ye  men  of  Athens." 

"For  Herodias'  sake,  his  brother  Philip's  wife." 
"Call  at  Lansing,  the  druggist's." 
>*  Your  service  as  matron  is  no  longer  needed." 
His  success  as  an  author  is  already  established." 
"The  story    of    Lincoln    as    a   flat-boat    man    somewhat 
resembles  that  of  Garfield  as  a  canal  boy." 
"We  should  favor  each  other." 
**irhey  love  one  another." 

[Note.— A  noun  maj'  be  in  apposition  with  a  phrase  or  a 
sentence.     It  is  then  nominative.] 

"  By  constant  use  of  the  crayon  in  illustration,  a  habit 
which  was  peculiar  to  him,  he  became  an  expert  artist." 

"  He  allowed  me  the  use  of  his  laboratory,  a  favor  I  greatly 
appreciated.  ' 

"Just  as  we  entered  the  harbor  the  boat  struck  a  sand-bar— 
a  most  unfortunate  circumstance." 

^      rulp:  YH. 

A  noun  or  pronoun  used  independently  must  be  in  the 
nominative  case. 

"O  Rome  I  the  eternal  city." 

"O  Rome!  thou  eternal  city." 

"Come,  Thou  Fount  of  every  blessing." 

"  Your  fathers— where  are  they  ?  And  the  prophets— do  they 
live  forever?  " 

"O  rare  we! " 

"Ah!  luckless  L" 

"  The  storm  having  ceased,  we  continued  our  work." 


b  THE  PRINCIPLES  OF 

"A  horse!  a  horse!  m\'  kingdom  for  a  horse  T" 
"  To  be  or  not  to  be— that  is  the  question." 
"  Webster's  Dictionary'." 

RULE  VIII. 

Transitive  verbs  in  the  active  voice  govern  the  objective 
case. 

1.  The  object  may  be  a  word. 

"Heaven  helps  those  who  help  themselves.'* 
"  God  loves  a  cheerful  giver." 

2.  The  object  may  be  a  phrase. 
**  Boys  like  to  swim." 

"Monarchies  pretend  to  believe  that  republics  are  short- 
lived." 

"The  pupils  desire  to  be  promoted." 

3.  The  object  may  be  a  clause. 

"Thou  canst  not  tell  whenceitcomethnor  whitheritgoeth." 

"  I  know  that  my  Redeemer  liveth." 

"  All  said  that  love  had  suffered  wrong." 

4.  Verbs  signifying  to  name,  to  ca//,  to  choose,  to  elect,  to 
appoint,  to  stvle,  to  consider,  etc.,  may  take  two  objects 
representing  the  same  person  or  thing,  called  the  double  object. 

"They  named  the  child  John,  but  called  him  Jack." 

"  They  have  chosen  Mr.  Smith  umpire." 

"  Will  th^  citizens  elect  Mr.  Sullivan  mayor  ?  " 

"  The  governor  has  appointed  Mr.  Miller  commissioner." 

"  The  English  style  their  monarch  queen." 

5.  Verbs  signifying  to  ask,  to  tell,  to  give,  to  buy,  to  do, 
etc.,  may  take  an  indirect  obiect. 

"The  pupils  y>^\q  their  teacher  a  book." 
"  We  will  .'»s1r  Iiim  some  questions." 
"  Will  veil  'h>  »'n  f»  *wvor  -^ " 


ENGLISH  SYNTAX.  i 

[Note. — The  indirect  object  may  be  preceded  by  to  or  for, 
and  may^  with  propriety,  be  considered  the  object  oi  the 
preposition,  instead  of  the  indirect  object  of  the  verb.] 

(>.  The  transitive  verbs  to  ask,  to  deny,  to  refuse,  to  show, 
to  tench,  and  others  of  kindred  meaning,  may  be  lollowed,  in 
the  passive  voice,  by  an  objective,  thus  forming  an  exception 
to  the  rule. 

"The  traveler  was  refused  shelter." 

"The  children  were  denied  admittance." 

"  Visitors  to  the  cave  are  shown  the  path  by  a  native  of  the 
mountains." 

"  The  class  has  been  taught  the  catechism." 

7.  A  few  verbs,  commonly  intransitive,  may  take  an  object 
of  kindred  signification. 

"  To  live  the  life  of  the  righteous." 
"To  die  the  death  of  a  saint." 
"  Leap  now  thy  last  leap." 

8.  The  transitive  verb  to  make  and  others  of  like  significa- 
tion, are  often  used  in  a  factitive  sense  with  an  adjective, 
which  latter  also  modifies  the  object. 

"  The  carpenter  has  made  the  door  wider." 

"  Practice  tends  to  make  one  perfect." 

"  Sleeplessness  will  render  a  strong  man  insane." 

[Note. — "Has  made  wider"  is  really  a  unit  in  idea,  signify- 
ing to  widen.  So,  likewise,  "to  make  perfect"  and  "will 
render  insane."  Such  being  the  case,  it  is  well  to  treat  these 
expressions  as  complex  verbs,  and  the  objects  as  governed  by 
them.] 

RULE  IX. 

PrepOvSitions  govern  the  objective  cavSe. 
"  We  shall  go  to  him,  but  he  will  never  return  to  us." 
"James  came  from  Cincinnati  to  Cleveland   on   Thursday, 
the  third  of  March,  and  will  remain  during  the  spring." 


8  THE  PRINCIPLES  OF 

[Note— Nouns  following  like  and  unlike  a:c  ^x>verned  by  the 
preposition  to  understood.  Many  authors  prefer  to  consider 
like  a  preposition. 

Rl  LE   X. 

Nouns  denoting  time,  direction,  distance  or  measure,  after 
Vjerbs  and  adjectives,  are  in  the  objective  case,  used  adverbially. 
*'  The  army  marched  fifteen  miles." 
*'  Wheat  is  worth  one  dollar  a  bushel." 
"  Can  ye  not  watch  with  me  one  hour  ?  " 
■"  The  building  is  to  be  six  stories  high." 

[Note.— All  expressions  illustrative  of  the  above  rule  are 
adverbial  modifiers,  hence  the  propriety  of  the  "adverbial 
objective." 

RULE  XI. 

Pronouns  must  agree    with   their  antecedents    in  gender, 

number  and  person. 
*'  The  pencils  that  are  used  are  excellent." 
*' Who  do  men  say  that  I,  the  Son  of  Alan,  am?" 
''Will  you  lend  me  the  book   which  gives  an   account  of 

Salem  Witchcraft  ?  " 
"I  who  am  but  a  youth.    You  who  are  aged." 

RULE  XIL 

A  pronoun  with  two  or  more  antecedents  in  the  singular, 
connected  by  or  or  nor,  must  be  singular. 
"  Will  Ned  or  Harry  bring  me  his  slate  ?  " 
"  If  thy  hand  or  thy  foot  offend  thee,  cut  it  ofi'." 

RULE  XIII. 

A  pronoun  with  two  or  more  antecedents  in  the  singular 
connected  by  and,  must  be  in  the  plural  number. 


ENGLISH    SYNTAX.  y 

''  vVilliam  and  Mary  are  to    occupy    the    throne  of  their 
ancestors." 
*'  The  dog  and  the  horse  know  their  master." 

RULE  XIV. 

An  adjective  or  a  participle  may  be  used  to  modify  some 
noun  or  pronoun,  or  may  have  the  construction  of  a  noun. 

"The  verdant  lawn,  the  shady  grove,  the  variegated  land- 
scape." 

1.  The  adjective  may  be  used  as  a  predicate. 
"  The  houses  on  the  avenue  are  elegant." 

"  To  iise  alcoholic  beverages  is  dangerous." 
"  The  lake  is  attractive." 

2.  The  adjective  may  be  used  to  limit  a  noun  and  adjective 
combined. 

"The  venerable  old  man.  ' 
"  The  ripe  old  wine." 

3.  The  adjective  may  be  used  as  a  noun. 

"  The  good  and  the  wise,  the  thoughtful  and  the  indifferent." 
"The  dead  were  soon  buried,  and  the  wounded  borne  to 
the  hospital." 

4.  The  adjective  may  be  used  abstractly. 
"  To  be  good  is  to  be  happy." 

"  To  be  dutiful  is  to  be  obedient." 

5.  The  adjective  may  be  used  to  limit  a  clause. 

"  It  is  advisable  that  ladies  should  be  chosen  as  delegates  to 
the  convention." 

6.  The  adjective  may  be  used  to  limit  a  phrase. 
"To  be  falsely  accused  is  unjust." 

7.  The  adjective  may,  by  poetic  license,  perform  the  office  of 
an  adverb, 

"Thev  fall  successive  and  successive  rise." 


10  THE    PRINCIPLES  OP^ 

8.  The  participle,  retaining  its  verbal  properties,  mav  relate 
to  some  noun  or  pronoun,     It  is  then  placed  after  its  noun. 

"The  men  digging  for  diamonds  Avere  subjected  to  a  dis- 
agreeable espionage," 

"  The  army,  having  been  driven  back, became  little  less  than 
a  mob." 

"  The  water  came  rushing  down  through  the  valley." 

"  The  tornado  went  roaring  through  the  forest." 

"  The  court  has  the  witnesses  summoned." 

9.  The  participle,  divested  of  the  idea  of  time,  may  become 
a  participial  adjective.     It  is  then  placed  before  its  noun. 

"  Flowing  water  is  generally  pure." 

"The  wounded  soldiers  were  taken  to  the  hospital." 

10.  The  participle  may  be  used  as  a  notm. 

"  The  teacher  w^as  engaged  in  calling  the  roll." 

"  Walking  is  more  healthful  than  riding." 

"  His  being  arrested  was  unfortunate." 

"  Most  of  the  party  enjoyed  swimming  and  rowing." 

"  The  surgeons  were  caring  for  the  wounded." 

11.  The  participle  may  be  used  abstractly. 

"  Looking  at  the  subject  from  the  standpoint  of  a  scholar, 
the  conclusion  reached  is  still  more  amazing." 

12.  The  participles  provided,  seeing,  etc.,  may  be  used  as 
conjunctions. 

'  You  shall  have  the  money  provided  you  furnish  security." 

"Wherefore,  seeing  we  also  are  compassed  about  with  so 

great  a  cloud  of  witnesses,  let  us  la}'  aside  every  weight,  etc." 

The  participles  concerning,  regarding,   touching,  pending, 

etc.,  maj^  be  used  as  prepositions. 

"The  orator  said  nothing  concerning  the  tariff." 
"There  is  no  information  regarding  the  Bering  Sea  contro- 
versy." 
"As  touchingthe  law,  a  Pharisee." 


ENGLISH    SYNTAX.  11 

"The  committee  asked  for  an  adjournment  pending  the 
negotiations." 

The  participles  passing,  exceeding,  etc.,  may  be  used  as  ad- 
verbs. 

"And  passing  rich  with  forty  pounds  a  year." 

"  An  exceeding  great  reward." 

RULE  XV. 

A  finite  verli  must  agree  wath  its  subject  in  number  and  per- 
son. 
"The  bird  flies." 
"The  birds  fly." 

"  A  thousand  years  in  Thy  sight  are  but  as  yesterday." 
"  It  is  delightful  to  hunt  and  to  fish." 
"Who  am  I  ?    What  art  thou  ?  " 
"  To  live  in  hearts  we  leave  behind  is  not  to  die." 

RULE  xvr. 

A  finite  verb  with  two  or  more  subjects  in  the  singular,  con- 
nected by  and,  must  be  plural. 

"  Night  and  day  are  both  alike  unto  Thee." 
"William  and  Mary  ascend  the  throne." 

1.  If  two  singular  nominatives  connected  by  and  represent 
unit}^  the  verb  must  be  singular. 

"  In  every  campaign  arises  a  hue  and  cry." 

"  Webster  is  dead— the  great  orator  and  statesman.is  dead." 

2.  If  two  singular  nominatives  connected  by  and  are  em- 
])hatically  distinguished,  the  verb  must  be  singular. 

"  Ambition,  and  not  the  safety  of  the  state,  was  concerned." 

3.  If  two  or  more  singular  nominatives  connected  by  and 
are  preceded  by  each  or  every,  a  singular  verb  is  required. 

"  Every  worm  and  every  insect  is  a  marvel  of  creative  power." 


12  THE    PRINXIPI.es   OF 

4.  If  two  or  more  nominatives  have  different  numbers,  and 
are  emphatically  distinguished,  the  verb  should  agree  with  the 
first. 

"Adherence  to  the  right,  and  not  the  rewards  of  office,  is 
an  honest  man's  aim  I '' 

5.  If  two  or  more  nominatives  differ  in  person,  the  verb 
should  agree  with  the  first  rather  than  the  second  or  third 
person,  and  with  the  second  rather  than  the  third.  If  the}-  are 
connected  by  or  or  nor,  the  verb  should  agree  with  the  nearest 
nominative.  The  second  person  should  precede  others  in 
position,  and  the  first  person  should  be  placed  last. 

"  You,  Ned,  and  I  have  finished  our  task." 

•*'  You  and  he  have  excelled  the  others." 

**  Ralph  or  his  friends  are  to  secure  the  stock." 

RULE   XVII. 

A  finite  verb  with  two  or  more  subjects  in  the  singular,  con- 
nected by  or  or  nor,  should  be  singular. 
"  The  Pearl  or  the  Reindeer  leavi^s  to-night  for  Put-in-Bay." 
2.   If  the  subjects  are  of  different  persons  or  numbers,  the 
verb  should  agree  with  the  nearest. 

"  Either  you  or  I  am  to  play  that  part." 
"  Neither  you  nor  he  is  required  to  attend  every  session." 
*'  Neither  Clay  nor  Webster  was  appreciated  in  his  day." 
•»■ 

RULE  XVHI. 

1.  The  infinitive  may  l)e  used  as  a  noun  in  the  nominative 
or  the  objective  case. 

"  To  purpose  is  not  necessarily  to  propose." 

"  The  army  was  about  to  march." 

"  Boys  like  to  swim." 

"To  lie  is  often  improperly  used  for  to  lay." 


ENGLISH    SYNTAX.  13 

"  Blind  Tom  can  do  nothing  except  to  play  the  piano.  " 

2.  The  infinitive  may  be  used  as  an  adjective. 

"  The  harvest  to  be  gathered  and  the  flocks  and  herds  to  be 
watched  will  demand  our  attention." 

*'  The  problems  are  to  be  solved  b\'  noon." 

"  The  artist  is  said  to  be  skillful." 

"The  officer  was  known  to  be  a  graduate  of  West  Point." 

"  The  guide  seemed  to  be  acquainted  with  the  history  of  the 
place." 

3.  The  infinitive  may  be  used  as  an  adverb. 
"  Our  friends  have  come  to  visit  us." 

"Many  questions  are  easy  to  ask,  but  difficult  to  answer." 
"The  child  walks  too  slowly  to  keep  pace  with  his  father." 
"The  pupils  are  anxious  to  learn,  but  will  be  glad  to  have 
vacation  come." 

4.  The  infinitive  may  be  used  abstractly. 

"To  make  the  story  short,  the  boy  was  ruined  by  reading 
bad  literature." 

5.  The  infinitive  may  be  used  as  the  predicate  of  an  objective. 
"The  soldiers  never  knew  General  Grant   to   boast   of  his 

success." 
[See  Rule  III.] 

6.  The  infinitive  may  be  used  a.-^  an  appositive  to  a  noun. 
"  Delightful  task !    To  rear  the  tender  thought." 

[Note. — After  bid,  dare,  let,  make,  hear,  see  and  feel,  and 
after  need  in  negative  expressions,  the  sign  to,  of  theinfinitive, 
is  generally  omitted.] 

RULE  XIX. 

Adverbs  modify  verbs,    adjectives,    adverbs,    phrases  and 
clauses;  and  may  be  used  independently. 
1.   "  The  pupils  study  diligently." 
"The  waterfowd  <j;^uides  liis  course  northward." 


14  THE    PRINCIPLES    OF 

2.  "  The  dog  is  the  most  faithful  of  all  animals." 

"  The  truly  great  are  found  in  every  condition  of  life." 

3.  "  The  omnibus  moves  far  too  slowly  to  satisfy  the  public." 
"The  party  returned   very  soon  after    receiving   the    sad 

intelligence." 

4.  "Close  to  the  realm  where  angels  had  their  birth,  just 
on  the  border  of  the  spirit  land." 

[Note. — The  preposition  in  a  phrase  sometimes  receives  the 
force  of  the  adverb;  as,  "Do  not  come  much  before  noon." 
"  He  does  not  rank  greatly  above  ordinary  monarehs."] 

5.  "  Truly,  God  is  good  to  Israel." 
"And  verily,  thou  shalt  be  fed." 

6.  "  Moreover,  the  dogs  came  and  licked  his  sores." 
"  However,  I  shall  accept  his  invitation." 

" Forever — never;  never — forever." 

"  Yes,  success  is  now  within  our  reach." 

"  Nay,  verily ;  such  prophecy  can  never  be  fulfilled." 

7.  The  adverb  may  be  used  as  a  noun. 

"  Till  then,  nor  is  my  boasting  vain : 
Till  then  I  boast  a  Saviour  slain." 

"None,  except  him  who  cometh  down  from  above." 
"  Until  now  1  have  believed  the  prisoner  innocent." 

8.  The  adverb  there  may  be  used  simply  to  introduce  a 
sentence,  and  is  then  called  an  expletive. 

"There  were  two  pilots  at  the  wheel." 

"There  was  a  man  in  the  land  of  Uz  whose  name  was  Job." 

9.  The  adverb  may  modify  the  entire  predicate. 
"Then  they  were  happy,  but  now  they  are  sorrowful." 

10.  The  adverb  may  help  to  form  a  complex  verb. 
"  To  tear  up  the  pavement." 

"To  burn  up  the  papers." 
"  To  shut  up  the  store." 
"To  shut  down  the  works." 


'  ENGLISH    SYNTAX.  15 

RULE  XX. 

A  preposition  shows  the  relation  of  its  object  to  that  word 
which  leads  to  its  use. 

"  William  came  from  Boston  to  Cleveland  in  March,  and  will 
remain  during  the  summer." 

"The  walk  was  high  in  the  middle,  but  low  on  both  sides." 

"Some  fishesin  Mammoth  Cave  have  no  eyes." 

[Note. — A  preposition  may  be  used  simply  to  introduce  a 
phrase^/,  e.,  as  an  expletive.] 

"  F(xr  man  to  indulge  in  the  illusions  of  hope  is  natural." 
"  For  me  to  labor  and  for  you  to  be  idle  would  be  unjust." 

RULE  XXL 

Coordinate  conjunctions  join  similar  elements. 

"The  North  and  the  South — thou  hast  created  them." 

"The  deer  runs  gracefully  and  swiftly." 

"The  true  statesman  is  wise  in  counsel  and  bold  in  the 
declaration  of  his  convictions." 

"The  city  is  situated  between  the  mountains  and  at  the 
confluence  of  the  rivers." 

"  You  may  take  the  book,  but  3'ou  must  not  lend  it." 

"If  human  things  went  ill  or  well, 
If  changing  empires  rose  or  iell, 
The  morning  passed,  the  evening  came, 
And  found  this  couple  still  the  same." 

RULE  XXII. 

Subordinate  conjunctions  join  dissimilar  elements. 

"The  pupils  study  that  they  may  learn." 

"  They  will  accomplish  much  if  they  are  diligent." 

*'Take  heed  lest  3'e  enter  into  temptation." 

"  Wc  are  wiser  than  the  ancients." 


16  THE    PRINCIPLES    OF  * 

[Note— The  subordinate  conjiitietion  may  be  used  simply  to 
introduce  a  sentence;  as,  "That  the  Egyptians  were  advanced 
in  science  is  evident."] 

RULE  XXIII. 

Relative  pronouns  and  conjunctive  adverbs  serve  as   sub- 
ordinate connectives. 
"  Not  all  that  glitters  is  gold." 
"  You  who  are  in  favor  will  say,  'Aye.'  " 
*'  There  is  a  place  where  all  will  meet." 
*'  There  are  times  when  silence  is  eloquent." 
"Come  as  the  winds  come  when  navies  are  stranded." 

RULE  XXIV. 

An  interjection  has  no  dependence  on  other  words. 
Pshaw!   Bravo!  Alas!  Indeed! 


ENGLISH    SYNTAX.  17 


ABRIDGMENT. 

1.  ''I  do  not  know  where  to  find  it." 

2.  "  Tell  me  when  to  eome." 

3.  "  Show  us  how  to  do  the  examples." 

"Conjunctive  adverbs,"  as  the  words  imply,  have  both  an 
adverbial  and  a  conjunctive  force.  They  are  often  used  in 
elliptical  expressions.  The  ellipsis  should  l)e  supplied  before 
analyzing ;  thus : 

"  I  do  not  know  where  [I  am]  to  find  it." 

"Tell  me  when  [I  amj  to  come." 

Clauses  may  be  abridged  Iw  the  use  of  the  infinitive  or  the 
participle;  thus: 

*'The  officers  supposed  that  the  man  was  guilty." 

"The  officers  supposed  the  man  to  be  guilty." 

"The  officers  had  no  doubt  of  his  /je//?^*- guilty." 


THE  DOUBLE  OR  COMPOUND  RELATIVE. 

A  relative  pronoun  which  sustains  two  relations  in  a 
sentence,  i.  c,  is  nominative  to  two  different  verbs,  not  com- 
pound; or,  object  of  two  different  verbs,  not  compound; 
or,  nominative  to  one  verb  and  object  of  another  verb, 
is  a  Double  Relative.  It  may  with  propriety  be  called 
"  Compound."  The  pronouns  called  "compound  "  by  authors 
are  compound  in  form  and  use;  as,  whoevety  whatever,  etc. 

Who  and  which,  s\mp\c  in  form,  are  also  used  in  acompoimd 


18  THE    PRINCIPLES    OF 

or  double  relation.     They  slionld,  therefore,  be  ealled  "double 
relatives."     What,  as  a  relative  pronoun,  is  always  double. 

1.  "  What  was  done  was  well  done." 

2.  "  Whoever  performs  the  eeremony  will  be  eriticised." 

3.  *'  Whoso  doeth  well  shall  be  rewarded." 

4.  "  Show  me  wliieh  you  selected." 

1 .  "  We  know  who  are  coming." 

2.  "W^hat  was  completed  they  accepted." 

3.  "  Whatever  is  most  pleasing  to  you  he  shall  do." 

4.  '*  Whosoever  cometh  tin  to  me  1  will  in  no  wise  east  out." 

1 .  "  We  liked  what  the  speaker  said." 

2.  "  All  knew  whom  the  committee  had  invited." 

3.  "  Buy  whatever  you  need." 

4.  "Show  me  which  he  prefers." 

5.  "W^hatsoever  ye  would  that  men  should  do  imto  you, 
do  ye  even  so  unto  them." 

Resolving  these  double  relatives  into  antecedents  and 
relatives,  we  find  the  subordinate  connective  in  the  latter. 

The  double  relative  often  becomes  an  adjective,  and  thus 
lends  its  force  to  a  noun. 

1.  "W^hat  books  were  bought  were  acceptable." 

2.  "  W^hatever  fruit  is  salable  may  be  received." 

3.  "  Bring  whichever  instrument  3'ou  prefer." 

4.  "  You  should  keep  what  money  vou  have  saved." 

5.  "  Whatever  pictures  you  prefer  will,  no  doubt,  please  all." 
0.   "  The  clerk  showed  me  which  books  had  been  selected." 
It  is  seen  that  nouns  in  the    above    examples  sustain  a 

"  double  "  relation. 


ENGLISH    SYNTAX.  19 


ANALYSIS  AND  SYNTHESIS. 

1.  Analysis  is  the  separation  of  a  sentence  into  itselements. 

2.  Synthesis  is  the  opposite  of  analysis— the  construction  of 
sentences  from  words,  phrases  and  clauses. 

3.  A  sentence  is  a  combination  of  a  subject  and  a  predicate 
it  is  an  assemblage  of  words  making  complete  sense, 

"Water  flows." 

"  The  lilies  of  the  valley  are  beautiful  flowers." 

4.  A   principal   sentence  makes  complete  sense  when  used 
alone. 

"  Washington  was  our  first  president." 

5.  A  subordinate  sentence  does  not,  in   itself,  make  com- 
{)letc  sense,  but  has  some  subordinate  part  in  another  sentence. 

"  If  ye  love  me,  keep  my  commandments." 

G,   A  declarative  sentence  is  one  that  affirms  or  denies. 

"  The  breezes  from  the  lake  are  cool  and  refreshing." 

7.  An  interrogative  sentence  is  one  that  asks  a  question. 
"  AVhen  will  the  cruel  war  be  over  ?  " 

8.  An  imperative  sentence    expresses    a    command    or  an 
entreaty. 

"  Knter  ye  in  at  the  strait  gate." 
*' Do  not  trouble  me  now." 

9.  An  exclamatory  sentence  expresses  an  exclamation  or 
strong  emotion.  ' 

*'  How  dreadful  is  the  fate  of  the  vSiberian  exiles !  ** 


20  '  THE    PRINCIPLES    OF 

10.  A  clause  is  a  sentence  that  forms  a  part  of  anothei' 
sentence. 

(a.)  A  compound  clause  consists  of  two  or  more  like  clauses 
joined  b}'  a  coordinate  conjunction. 

"The  novels  which  Scott  wrote,  and  which  are  read  the 
world  over." 

(/j.)  A  complex  clause  is  a  combination  of  two  or  more 
unlike  clauses. 

"  The  prince  expressed  a  desire  that  the  party  should  visit 
Niagara,  which  is  said  to  afford  the  most  magnificent  scenery 
of  America." 

11.  A  compound  sentence  is  a  combination  of  two  or  more 
like  sentences;  /.  e.,  sentences  of  equal  rank.  They  are  joined 
by  coordinate  conjunctions. 

"The  storm  raged  along  the  coast,  and  many  staunch 
vessels  \vere  wrecked." 

12.  A  complex  sentence  is  a  combination  of  sentences 
of  unequal  rank ,  /.  c,  of  principal  and  subordinate  clauses. 

"When  the  wind  is  high  the  lake  is  rough." 

13.  The  clause  may  have  the  following  uses 
(a.)   The  subject  of  a  sentence. 

"Who  was  the  author  of  'The  Bread  Winners '  has  not  been 
clearly  established." 

{b.)  The  predicate  of  a  sentence. 

"The  truth  is,  I  am  tired  of  ticking." 

(c.)  An  adjective  element. 

"The  houses  which  were  built  in  Oueen  Anne's  time  werenot 
like  those  which  appeared  a  century  later." 

{(f.)  An  adverbial  element. 

"  Strike!  till  the  last  armed  foe  expires." 

(e. )   An  objective  element. 

"  Dost  thou  know  where  wisdom  is  found  ?  " 

(f.)   An  attendant  element. 


ENGLISH    SYNTAX.  21 

"  But  where  the  money  is  to  be  obtained— that,  sir,  seems  to 
be  the  all  important  ({uestion." 

14.  A  phrase  is  a  preposition  and  its  object  or  a  verb  in  the 
infinitive  mode;  as,  "In  the  harbor;"  "by  the  pier;"  "to 
l)reak  ;  "  "to  gather." 

A  phrase  may  have  the  following  uses : 

[a.)   The  subject  and  the  predicate  of  a  sentence. 

"To  retreat  at  that  moment  would  have  been  criminal." 

"To  lay  an  Atlantic  cable,  or  to  invent  the  telephone  is  to 
inscribe  one's  name  among  the  great  men  of  earth." 

(b.)   An  adjective  element. 

"  The  work  to  be  done  requires  a  skillful  hand." 

"  Ours  to  enjo}',  ours  to  preserve,  ours  to  transmit." 

(c.)   An  adverbial  element. 

"Children  should  read  to  store  their  minds  with  useful 
knowledge." 

"  The  works  of  the  old  masters  are  difficult  to  cop\'." 

"The  boat  moves  too  slowly  to  overtake  the  steamer." 

(d.)   An  objective  element. 

"  All  like  to  succeed  in  their  undertakings." 

"  The  Indians  wished  to  retain  their  hunting  grounds." 

(e.)  An  attendant  element. 

"  To  be  or  not  to  be — that  is  the  question." 

15.  An  inseparable  phrase  is  a  combination  of  two  or 
more  words  which  convey  a  simple  idea.  It  is  treated  as  one 
word;  as,  "By  and  by;"  "neck  by  neck;"  "shoulder  to 
s^houlder;"  "at  last;"  "by  the  way;"  "up  there; "•" down 
here." 

[The  term  phrase  has  also  a  l^roader  and  more  indefinite 
meaning  than  is  here  given.] 

10.   An  element  is  one  of  the  component  parts  of  a  sentence. 
17.   A  compound  element  is  a  cc^mbination  of  like  elements. 
The}'  are  joined  by  a  coordinate  conjunction. 


22  THE    PRINCIPLES  OF 

"Books  or  slates."  "Tall  and  graceful."  "Slowly  and 
sadly."  " On  the  hill-tops  and  in  the  valle^^s."  ''Trees  which 
grow  rapidly  and  furnish  abundant  shade." 

18.  A  complex  element  is  a  combination  of  unlike  elements. 
"A    very    becoming   garment."      "A    generally    successful 

angler."     "  The  child  writes  entirely  too  fast." 

19.  Principal  elements  are  such  as  perform  the  office  of  sub- 
ject or  predicate. 

20.  Subordinate  elements  are  vSuch  as  are  used  to  limit  or 
modif\'. 

21.  Attendant  elements  are  nouns  or  pronouns  in  the 
absolute  case,  or  mere  expletives. 

22.  Adjective  elements  are  such  as  limit  nouns  or  pronouns. 

23.  Objective  elements  are  such  as  express  what  or  whom 
after  transitive  verbs. 

24.  Adverbial  elements  are  such  as  limit  verbs,  expressing 
any  relation  except  what  or  whom,  and  such  as  limit  adjec- 
tives, adverbs,  phrases  and  clauses. 

25.  The  subject  of  a  sentence  is  the  word,  phrase  or  clause 
about  which  something  is  asserted. 

26.  The  predicate  of  a  sentence  is  the  word,  phrase  or 
clause  expressing  what  is  asserted  of  the  subject. 

[Note. — The  term  "attribute"  is  preferred  by  many  to 
express  that  word,  phrase  or  clause  which  is  used  with  the 
copula  to  form  the  "  predicate."] 

The  general  copula  is  the  verb  to  be.  Any  intransitive  or 
passive  verb  that  is,  in  its  use,  resolvable  into  to  be,  may  per- 
form the  office  of  the  copula,  and  thus  become  a  "copulative 
verb."  The  verb  to  be  is  sometimes  added  to  the  finite  verb 
thus  used. 

27.  In  the  following  examples  the  interrogative  adjective 
how  and  the  adjectives  in  the  answers  are  predicate  adjectives, 
the  verbs  being  copulative : 


ENGLISH    SYNTAX.  2'3 

"  How  does  the  picture  look  ?— Beautiful." 

"How  does  the  music  sound ?— Soft." 

•'  How  does  the  quinine  taste?— Bitter." 

"  How  does  the  rose  smell? — Sweet." 

"  How  does  the  velvet  feel  ?— Smooth." 

"  How  does  the  child  seem?— Healthy." 

"  How  is  the  artist  considered  ?— Capable." 

**  How  are  you,  Ned?— Well." 

"How  do  you  do,  Ned?— Better." 

28.  In  the  following,  like  is  a  predicate  adjective;  or, 
regarding  like  as  a  preposition,  which  many  authors  prefer, 
the  phrase  introduced  by  like  is  a  predicate-adjective  phrase. 

"  The  child  looks  like  his  father." 

"  The  friiit  tavStes  like  an  orange." 

"The  cloth  feels  like  silk." 

"  The  instrument  sounds  like  a  bugle." 

"  The  flowers  smell  like  pinks." 

"  The  odor  is  like  musk." 

*'  Prince  Napoleon  was  said  to  be  like  his  father." 

"  The  painting  is  supposed  to  be  like  the  original." 

"  The  orator  seemed  like  a  sincere  man." 

"  To  be  like  the  noblest  of  the  noble  should  be  the  ambition 
ofyouth." 

Verbs  expressive  of  the  senses,  and  some  other  copulative 
verbs,  are  often  followed  by  predicate-adjective  clauses. 

"  You  look  as  if  you  would  faint." 

"The  bell  sounds  as  if  it  were  cracked." 

"  The  cake  tasts  as  if  it  were  burnt." 

The  elliptical  clause  between  as  and  /Tis  adjective.  If  as  and 
//  are  taken  together  as  a  complex  conjunction,  then  they 
introduce  an  adjective  clause.  If  the  ellipsis  is  supplied,  the 
clause  introduced  bv  /Tis  adverbial. 


24 


THE    PRINCIPLES  OF 


LIST  OF  PREPOSITIONS 


Abaft. 

Amidst. 

Aloft. 

Aboard. 

Among. 

Afore. 

About. 

Amongst. 

A  down. 

Above. 

A  near. 

Aloof. 

Across. 

Around. 

Aslant. 

A  down. 

Aslant. 

As  to. 

After. 

Astride. 

According  to. 

Against. 

At. 

Aboard  of. 

Along. 

Athwart. 

As  for. 

Amid. 

Alongside. 

Along  with. 

Before. 

Beside. 

But. 

Behind. 

Besides. 

By. 

Below. 

Between. 

Because  of. 

Beneath. 

Betwixt. 
Beyond. 

But  for. 

Concerning.                  Contrary 

to. 

Despite. 

During. 
Down. 

Devoid  of. 

Ere. 

Except. 

Excepting. 

For. 

From  between. 

From  beside. 

From . 

From  near. 

From  under. 

From  aboard. 

From  off. 

From  over. 

From  among. 

From  imdcr. 

From  across. 

From  about. 

From  before. 
From  behind. 

From  betwixt 

ENGLISH    SYNTAX. 


25 


In. 
Into 


Inside.  In  resj^eet  to. 

In  consideration  of.   In  place  of. 
Instead  of. 


Like. 


Maugre. 


Minus. 


Near. 

Nigh. 
Notwithstanding. 

■  Next. 

Of. 

Opposite. 

Out  of. 

Off. 

Outside. 

Out  from. 

On. 

Over. 

On  account  of. 

Over  against. 

Past. 

Pending. 

Per. 

Plus. 

Previous 

to. 

Respecting. 

Round. 
Regarding. 

Round  about. 

Since. 

Save. 
Saving. 

Sans. 

Till. 

Touching. 

Through. 

To. 

Toward. 
Towards. 

Throughout. 

Under. 

Unlike. 

Up. 

Underncatli. 

Until. 
Unto. 

Upon. 

Versus. 


Within. 


Without 


i/Vi*-l». 


26  THE    PRINCIPLES    OF 


CO-ORDINATE   CONJUNXTIONS. 

The  following  is  a  list  of  the  more  common  coordinate  con- 
junctions: And,  also,  as,  but,  even,  or,  nor,  else,  now,  other- 
wise, so,  then,  therefore,  wherefore,  yet,  as  well  as,  still, 
nevertheless. 


SUBORDINATE  CONJliNCTIONS. 

The  words  most  commonly  used  as  subordinate  conjunc- 
tions are:  That,  hut  that,  as,  because,  for,  if,  unless,  lest, 
though,  although,  except,  since,  than,  provided,  providing, 
seeing  that,  notwithstanding,  inasmuch  as,  for  as  much  as, 
save  that. 


CORRELATIVE  CONJUNCTIONS. 

Either — or,  neither — nor,  or — or,  whether — or,  although— yet, 
although — nevertheless,  as — as,  as — so,  if— then,  so — as,  so — 
that,  nor— nor,  though — still,  both — and,  not  only — but  also. 

[Note.— In  expressions  of  equality,  as-as  is  generally  used, 
while  in  negative  expressions  so-as  is  proper;  thus,  "It  is  as 
warm  to-day  as  it  was  3^esterday."  "  It  is  not  so  warm  to- 
day as  it  was  yesterday."  If  the  negative  adverb  is  not  used, 
so-as  may  express  equaHty ;  thus,  '\9o  soon  as  the  taxes  were 
paid  the  apportionment  was  made."] 


ENGLISH    SYNTAX.  27 


ANTIQUE  FORMS. 

The  verbs  to  come,  to  meet,  to  go,  to  rise  and  to  arrive  may 
have  the  auxiliary  to  he  instead  of  to  have.  These  verbs  have 
no  voice.    Such  forms  of  expression  are  antique. 

Examples.— " The  Lord  is  risen  indeed."  "The  time  was 
now  come  when  Washington  desired  to  resign  his  commission." 


WORDS  USED  IN  DIFFERENT  CONSTRUCTIONS. 
About. 

Adverb. — "  How  was  such  a  condition  brought  about  ?  " 
Preposition.— "Walk  about  Zion,  and  go  round  about  her." 
"  —"Just  as  the  army  was  about  to  march,  the 

President  arrived." 

Above. 

Adjective.— "  The  heavens  above,  the  earth  beneath." 
Noun. — "Angelic  messengers  from  above." 
Adverb. — "  Faith  looks  above  for  comfort." 
Preposition. — "Above  the  clouds  on  upward  wings  could  I 
but  fly." 

Adieu. 

Interjection.— "Adieu!  ye  waterfalls,  adieu." 
Noun.— "Adieus  and  farewells  arc  a  sound  unknown." 


28  THE    PRINCIPLES    OF 

After. 

Adjective, — "But  that  was  an  after  thought." 
Adverb. — "  All  left  the  camp  soon  after." 
Conj.  Adverb. — "  The\'  did  not  buy  after  real  estate  rose." 
Preposition. — "After  the  charge  to  the  jury,  the  court   ad- 
journed." 

Alike. 

Adjective.—"  The  bells  sound  alike." 
— "  The  children  look  ahke." 

.<         — "The  silks  feel  alike." 

*'         — "  The  plums  taste  alike." 

"         — "The  flowers  smell  alike." 

*'         — "  All  Sundays  seem  alike," 

a         — a  'pj^^  twins  become  alike  as  they  grow  older." 

<i         — "The  courses  of  study  are  alike." 

a         — «<  'pi^g  sisters  are  considered  alike." 

"         — '<  Xhe  bills  are  supposed  to  be  alike." 
Adverb.—"  All  the  soldiers  are  drilled  alike." 

"       — "  Not  all  pupils  read  alike." 

"       — *<  The  victims  were  alike  imfortunate." 

"       — "Those  rifles  do  not  shoot  alike." 

All. 

Noun. — "The  flood  sv/ept  away  their  all." 

"      — "  All  must  be  held  equally  responsible." 
Adjective. — "  All  booksmust  be  returned  at  once." 
Adverb.—"  He  rode  all  unarmed  and  he  rode  all  alone." 
"        — "  All  along  life's  pathway." 

Any. 

Noun. — "Any  who  wish  may  remain." 

Adjective. — "  Has  the  prisoner  any  friends  ?  " 

Adverb. — "He  will  not  be  kept  any  longer  in  confinement." 


ENGLISH    SYNTAX.  29 

Around. 

Adjective. — "One  look  around  was  sufficient." 

Adverb. — "  Wouldst 'thou  behold  a   beautiful  peninsula,  look 

around." 
Preposition. — "Around  the  fire,  one  wintry  night,  the  farmer's 

rosy  children  sat." 

As. 

Relative  Pronoun.— "Such  as  T  have,  give  I  urito  thee." 

"  "         — "A  child  is  inclined  to  do  the  same  as  his 

father." 
"  "         — "As  I  was  saying,  Mr.  Smith's  Christian 

name  was  John." 
**  "         — "  As  we  supposed,  only  the  advance  guard 

had  arrived." 
*'  "         — "As  has  been   said  repeatedly  from  this 

platform,   the  Constitution  makes  no 
])ro vision  for  such  an  emergency." 
Adverb  and  Conj.  Adverb.— "As  many  as  [many]  I  have  I  will 

give  you." 
"         "        "  "        — "The  Father  is  as  just  as  He  is 

merciful." 
"         "        "  "        — "Arc  not  the  men  of  this  genera- 

tion as   wise   as  [wise]  the  an- 
cients? " 
Conj.  Adverb.— "As  we  passed  the  buoy,  we  could  hear  the 
warning  bell." 
*'  "        — "  As  the  waters  rose  in  the  valleys,  the  inhabi- 

tants were  driven  to  higher  ground." 
Conjunction.— "As  the  committee  has  invited  me,  I  intend  to 
accept." 
it  — "Your  services  as  clerk  are  no  longer  needed." 


30  THE    PRINCIPLES  OF 

♦<  — "  We  read  of  Lincoln  as  a  mart\'r,  of  Caesar  as 

a  conqueror.' 
**  — '*  As  a  citizen  of  this  state,  I  shall  object." 

Part  of  Complex  Preposition.— "  As  to  the  'silver  plank,'  the 

speaker  had  nothing  to  sa\'. ' ' 
"  "  — "  As  to  who  the  Mound  Build- 

ers  were,  history  has  little 
to  say." 

[Note.— As  is  often  used  as  a  "conjunctive  adjective,"  and 
should  be  parsed  as  such.] 

'  Shall  I  take  that  essay  as  it  is,  or  wait  till  you  have 
copied  it  ?'* 

"Will  you  wear  that  coat  as  it  is,  or  have  the  tailor  change 
it?" 

'  The  prisoner  was  not  as  he  seemed — hopeful  and  cheerful." 

"Just  as  I  am,  without  one  plea." 

"  Remember,  friend,  as  jou  pass  by, 
As  you  are  now,  so  once  w^as  I ; 
But  as  1  am,  so  3'ou  must  be — 
Prepare  for  death  and  follow  me." 

Before. 

Adverb.—"  Not  lost,  but  gone  before." 

Conjunctive  Adverb. — "The  work  will  be  completed  before  the 

sun  goes  down." 
Preposition. — "The  pupilsmust  finish  their  tasks  beforenoon." 

Below. 

Noun.— "Ominous  sounds  came  from  below." 

Adjective.— "  The  towering  peaks    above,   the    fertile    plains 

below." 
Adverb. — "The  winding  river,  like  a   silver  band,  was  seen 

below." 
Preposition. — "Clay  is  found  along  the  lake  shore  below  the 

sand." 


ENGLISH    SYNTAX.  31 

Beneath. 

Noun.— "A  thick  fog  rose  constantly  from  beneath." 
Adjective. — "  The  heavens  above,  the  earth  beneath." 
Preposition.— "Beneath  those  rugged  elms,  that  yew-tree's 

shade." 
Adverb.—"  It  matters  little  whether  the  hand  is  held  above  or 

beneath." 

Best. 

Noun. — "  The  best  is  usually  the  cheapest." 

Adjective. — "Aim  to  follow  the  best  advice." 

Adverb. — "  These  copies  suit  us  best." 

Adverbial  Phrase. — "This  typewriter  suits  the  best  of  all." 

Both. 

Noun. — "The  privilege    of   purchasing  both    or   either    was 

granted." 
Adjective. — "It  is  well  to  study  both  sides  of  a  question." 
Conjunction. — "  Franklin  at  that  time  was  both  old  and  wise." 

But. 

Part  of  Complex  Adjective. — "A  king  is  but  a  man." 

Adverb.—"  We  have  but  five  examples." 

Preposition. — "  All  but  five  have  departed  form  earth." 

ii  — "There  is  no  fireside,  howsoe'cr  defended,  but 

[what]  has  one  vacant  chair." 
Part  of  Complex  Preposition.—"  Perfect  bedlam  would  prevail 

but  for  the  rules." 

By. 

Adverb.— "Priest  and  Levite  passed  by  on  the  other  side." 
Preposition.— "A  wide-spreading  ash  stood  by  the  altar." 

Close. 

Adjective.—"  The  hall  seems  close." 


32  THE    PRINCIPLES  OF 

Adverb.— "They  followed  close  Upon  our  heels." 

♦•       — "Close  to  the  realm  where  angels  had  their  birth, 
just  on  the  border  of  the  spirit  land." 

Each. 

Adjective. — "The  tourists  visited  each  tomb." 
Adjective  Used  as  Noun. — "  The  children  loved  each  other." 
"  "  "       — "  Let  each  esteem  others  Ijetter  than 

himself." 

Else. 

Adjective. — "  Who  else  has  completed  his  work  ?  " 
Adverb. — "  How  else  can  we  secure  the  end  desired  ?  " 
Conjunction. — "Thou    desirest    not    sacrifice,    else    would    I 


Enough. 

Noun. — "And  thou  shalt  have  enough  and  to  spare." 
Adjective. — "The  children  have  had  pleasure  enough  for  once." 
Adverb.— "They  have  played  long  enough." 

Even. 

Noun. — "The  even  was  far  spent." 

Adjectiv^e. — "  Even  numbers  are  divisible  by  two." 

Adverb. — "Even  his  fortune  was  snatched  away." 

Conjunction. — "And  God,  even  our  own  God,  shall  bless  us." 

Except. 

Verb. — "  Would  you  not  except  present  company  ?  " 
Preposition. — "  They  have  none  except  what  is  in  use." 
Conjunction.^^ — "  Except  ye  repent  ye  shall  all  likewise  perish." 
"  — "  Except  the  Lord  build  the  house,  the\^  labor  in 

A^ain  who  build." 


ENGLISH    SYNTAX.  33 

Far. 

Noun. — "The  soldiers  arc  marching  from  near  and  from  far." 
Adjective. — "The  prodigal  son  went  into  a  far  coimtry." 
Adverb.—"  He  had  wandered  far  away." 

"       — "How  far  can  an  army  march  under  a  broiling  sun 
without  food  and  drink  ?  " 

Fast. 

Noun. — "Man^-  prefer  a  fast  to  a  feast." 
Adjective.—"  The  ffist  mail  has  passed  the  city." 
Adverb. — "Seize  him,  and  bind  him  fast." 

— "  Fast  by  the  throne  obsequious  Fame  resides." 
Verb. — "  Many  Christians  fast  at  stated  seasons." 

First. 

Noun.— "  The  first  shall  be  last,  and  the  last  first." 
Adjective. — "Who  is  first?" 
Adverb.— "  Who  strikes  first  ?  " 

For. 

Preposition. — "  Welcome  !  We  were  looking  for  you." 

Part  of  Complex  Preposition. — "As  for  me  and  my  bouse,  we 

will  serve  the  Lord." 
'*  '*  *'  — "But    for   irrigation,   agricul- 

ture would  not  be  profit- 
able in  that  section  of  the 
country." 

Introductory  Preposition. — "  For  me  to  labor  ami  for  you  to 

be  idle  wotdd  be  unjust." 

Conjunction. — "  Come,  for  all  things  arc  now  readv." 

Full. 

Noun.— "Appoint  the  day  at  the  full  of  the  moon." 
Adjective. — "The  lecturer  was  greeted  with  a  full  house." 


34  THE    PRI\CIPLfi:S    OF 

Adverb. — "  Full  well  they  laughed  with  eounterfeited  glee." 

<<       — "  Full  many  a  gem  of  purest  ray  serene." 
Verb. — "The  manufacturers  full  the  cloth." 

Hard. 

Adjective. — "Sandstone  is  not  so  hard  as  granite." 
Adverb. — "  You  should  not  bear  on  too  hard  with  the  pen." 
"       — "  Hard  by  yon  wood,  now  smiling  as  in  scorn." 

However. 

Adverb. — "However   far    one    may    see    with    the  telescope, 
only  the  practised  eye  can  take  valuable 
observations." 
"       — "  However,  the  party  will  imdoubtedly  be  iniited  at 
the  election." 

His. 

Personal  or  Possessive  Pronoun. — Mine,    yours,    ours,    hers, 

his,  theirs,  etc. 

[Note. — If  we  regard  the  above  pronouns  as  *' possessive  pro- 
nouns,'' person,  gender  and  number  should  not  be  ascribed  to 
them,  but  case  only.] 

How. 

Adjective. — "  How  are  you,  Ned  ?  " 
—"How  is  Ned?" 
"  — "  How  do  you  do,  Ned  ?  " 

"  — "  How  do  you  feel,  Ned  ?  " 

"         —"How  does  Ned  look  ?  " 
"  — "  How  does  Ned  seem  ?  " 

"  — "How  is  Ned  considered ? " 

"  — "  How  does  quinine  taste  ?  " 

*'  — "  How  does  the  rose  smell  ?  " 

"  — "  How  does  the  music  sound  ?  " 


ENGLISH    SYNTAX.  35 

Adverb.-"  How  does  Ned  play  ?  " 

— "  How  does  Ned  progress  ?  " 
"       — "How  does  Ned  succeed ? " 
"      — "  How  is  Ned  going?  " 
"       — "How  was  Ned  invited  ?  " 
"       — "  How  was  Ned  informed  ?  " 
"       —"How  old  is  Ned?" 
Conjunctive  Adverb.—  'Will  you  tell  me  how  I  can  solve  this 
problem^" 
*'  *'        — "  Please  to  show  me  how  [I  am]  to  pick 

the  lock." 
"  "        — "Most    pioneers    learn    by    experience 

how   [one  is]  to  make  money  in  the 
wilderness." 

111. 

Noun.— "The  flesh  is  heir  to  many  ills." 

Adjective.— " Are  you   ill?     You   look  ill,  and   I   think,  must 

feel  il'l." 
Adverb.— "  Ladies  could  ill  afford  to  dispense  with  thesewing- 

machine." 

Indeed. 

Adverb.— "It  is  indeed  sad." 

"       —"Indeed,  we  had  not  heard  of  it." 
Interjection.—"  Indeed  !   we  had  not  heard  of  it." 

Late. 

Adjective. — "Late  suppers  are  not  conducive  to  health." 

"  — "The  fast  train  is  very  late." 

Adverb.— "You  have  come  very  late  to  the  station." 
Part  of  Adverbial   Phrase.— "Of  late  the  stores  have  been 

closing  at  six." 


36  THE    PRINCIPLES    OF 

Last. 

Noun.— "The  last  of  the  Mohicans." 

Adjective. — "The  last  edition  is  greatU'  improved." 

Part  of  Adverbial  Phrase. — "  At  last,  peace  reigns  in  Warsaw." 

Adverb.—"  Who  finishes  last  is  often  best." 

Like. 

Noun.—  "  When  lo  !   a  flood,  the  like  of  which  no  man  had  ever 
seen,  came  rolling  over  the  parching  earth." 
"      — "  All  mortals  have  their  likes  and  dislikes." 
Adjective. — "  The  tree  looks  like  an  oak." 

«*  — "  The  note  sounds  like  that  of  the  mocking-bird." 

*'  — "The  flower  smells  like  a  rose." 

n  — "  f  he  medicine  tastes  like  quinine." 

•'  — "  Xhe  paper  feels  like  cloth." 

(<  — *'  The  child  is  like  her  mother." 

<(  — a  >^YiQ  child  has  become  like  her  mother." 

((         — "The  child  is  said  to  be  like  her  mother." 
Adverb. — "The  volunteer  soldiers  fight  like  veterans." 
«       — "They  march  like  recruits." 

— '*  Xhe  actress  plays  like  a  star." 
"       — "  The  children  chat  like  magpies." 
— "  The  man  walks  like  a  cripple." 

[Note. — Many  authors  prefer  to  consider  like  a  preposition. 
It  makes  no  difference  as  far  as  correct  speech  is  concerned.  If 
it  is  parsed  as  a  preposition,  the  phrase  introduced  by  it  is 
adjective  or  adverbial,  precisely  as  indicated  above.] 

Low. 

Noun. — "The  high  and  the  low,  the  rich  and  the  poor — all  are 

equal  before  the  law." 
Adjective. — "The  mountainside  was  nearly  covered  with  an 

unhealthy  growth  of  low  trees  and  shrubs." 


ENGLISH    SYNTAX.  37 

Adverb. — "The  clouds  hang  low  o'er  the  lake,  portending  a 

storm.'' 
Verb. — "The  cattle  low  about  the  lane    as  if  asking  shelter 

from  the  coming  storm." 

More. 

Xoun. — "And  who  could  ask  for  more?" 
Adjective.—"  Our  navy  has  ordered  more  iron-clads." 
Adverb. — "  Weep  no  more  for  the  departed." 
Part  of  Adverbial  Phrase.— "  The  more  we  read  Dickens  the 

better  we  like  him." 

Much. 

Noun. — "To    whom   much    is    given,   of  him    much    will    be 

required." 
Adjective. — "The  forests   of   Maine   produce    much  valuable 

lumber." 
Adverb. — "The  officers  feel  much  troubled  over  the  mistake  of 

the  soldiers." 

Nay. 

Noun. — "  Let  your  communications  be  yea,  3'ea,  nay,  nay." 
Adverb. — "  Nay,  I  can  not  consent." 

No. 

Noun. — "Did  he  say  no ?  " 
Adverb.— "No,  he  did  not  answer." 

"       — "We  shall  go  no  further  to-day." 
Adjective. — "No    sound    of  hammer    was    heard    about   the 
temple." 

Notwithstanding. 

Preposition.— "We  shall   take  exercise,  notwithstanding  the 
advice  given  " 


38  THE    PKIXCIPLES  OF 

Coujunction. — "  The  train  waited,  notwithstanding  the  orders 

forbade." 
Adverb.— "  Mylad,  how  did  you  hajjpen  to  fall  ?"     "  Notwith 

standing!" 

Now. 

Noun. — "  In  one  eternal  now." 
Adverb.— "Come  now,  fori  am  ready." 
Conjunction. — "Now,  Barabbas  was  a  robber." 

Only. 

Noun. — "The  great  original  and  only.'^ 
Adjective.—"  Ladies  only  are  admitted." 
"  — "  Only  swans  sing  when  dying." 

— "  Youth  only  are  invited." 
"  — *'  'Phe  merchant  deals  in  dr\'  goods  only," 

"  — "Onh"  pines  flourish  in  such  soil." 

Adverb. — "  Man  is  born  only  to  die." 

ti       —"Things    only    slighth'    connected    should    not    be 

crowded  into  one  sentence." 
"       — "  Only  sing,  and  I  shall  be  satisfied." 
"       — "  Onh'  in  the  morning  is  the  lark's  note  heard."* 
4i        — a  They  have  only  five  books  left." 
Part  of  Complex  Adjective. — "  Onh^  an  armor-bearer." 

"  "  "         — "Only  a  pansy." 

Conjunction. — "  The  same  communication  was  forwarded  t<: 
the  commissioners,  only  it   was  in   another 
hand-writing." 
[Note. — The  use  of  only  as  a  conjunction   is   not   generally 
approved.] 
Ambiguous. — "  Assure  me  only,  and  I  shall  be  satisfied." 

a  — "Take  a  walk  only  in  the  morning,  and  youi 

health  will  improve." 
I  *'  — "He  only  waved  his  hands." 

"  — "Swans  only  sing  when  dying." 


ENGLISH    SYNTAX.  39 

[Note. — The  use  of  only  is  often  attended  with  ambiguit\'. 
The  emphasis  upon  the  words  spoken  may  prevent  the 
ambiguity^  while  in  written  speech  it  is  impossible  to  avoid  it. 
Rules  laid  down  as  to  the  position  of  0/2/jin  written  language 
are  mostly  failures.] 

Ought. 

Part  of  Complex  Verb. — "The  heirs  ought  to  be  satisfied  with 

the  division  of  the  property." 

\)\otc.— Ought  to  be  satisfied  should  be  regarded  as  a  com- 
])lex  verb.  In  the  course  of  time  to  will,  undoubtedl^s  be 
dropped,  as  in  the  case  of  shall,  should  and  other  auxiliaries.] 

Over. 

Adverb.—"  Come  over  at  your  leisure." 
Preposition. — "The  emigrants  drove  over  the  mountains." 
Part  of    Complex   Preposition.— "  A  rugged    peak    suddenly 

appeared    over    against 
the  sky." 

Past. 

Noun. — "The  past,  at  least,  is  secure." 
Adjective.-"  Past  time  can  never  be  recovered." 
Adverb. — "The  procession  moved  slowly  past." 
Preposition.— "The  ship  sailed  past  the  fort." 

Right. 

Noun. — "  And  is  it  true  that  might  makes  right  ?  " 

"      — "The  right  does  not  always  prevail." 
Adjective.—"  Right  acts  are  always  to  be  commended." 

"  — "  If  thy  right  hand  offend  thee,  cut  it  off." 

Adverb.—"  The  engine  does  not  run  right  to-day."  * 

<i      — "The-Oerman  emperor  was  received  right  royally  in 
England." 


40  THE    PRINCIPLES  OF 

Round. 

Noun.— "On  the  third  round  the  tavorite  horse  distanced  all 

the  rest." 
Adjective  — "  The  round  mast  is  the  strongest  of  all." 
Adverb.—"  A  wheel  turns  round." 
Preposition — "The  people  stood  round  him." 
Verb — "Our  little  life  is  rounded  with  a  sleep." 

Save. 

Verb. — "  Save  me,  Hubert !  " 

Preposition. — "All  were  alike  condemned  by   this  tribunal, 
save   those   who  had    secretly   promised   to 
recant." 
Part  of  Complex  Conjunction. — "And   all  the   air  a   solemn 

stillness  holds,  save  that 
from  yonder  ivy-mantled 
tower  the  moping  owl  does 
to  the  moon  complain." 

Since. 

Adjective. — "And   all  the  generations  since  have  risen  up  to 

callHim  blessed." 
Adverb. — "  The  children  were  much  interested  at  the  time  in 

Dickens'  stories,  and  have  often  referred  to 

them  since." 
Conjunctive  Adverb. — "The  congregation  had  not  heard  Dr. 

Talmage    since    he    returned   from 
the  holy  land." 
Conjunction. — "The  committee  will  invite  Mr.  Spurgeon  to 

lecture,  since  the  demand  is  so  general." 
Preposition. — "The  gentleman  has  resided  in  Canada  since  his 

majority." 


ENGLISH    SYNTAX.  41 

So. 

Noun.— "Aha!  I  told  you  so  !  " 

"     —"Really!  don't  you  think  so?" 

"     — "  You  were  warned  not  to  take  the  risk  ;  if  you  do  so, 
you  must  blame  only  yourself." 
Adjective.— "The  climate  of  California  is  healthful,  I  am  told. 
It  is  so." 
"         —"Do  you  not  think  I  am  better  in  this  cHmate? 

You  certainh'  look  so." 
"         —"The  winters  of  Canada  have  been  represented  as 
long  and  wearisome,  but  I  have  not  found  them 
so." 
"         — "It  is  quite  cool.     It  is  so." 
Adverb. — "Minnie  writes  very  plainly.     She  does  so." 
a       — n  'pjj^  diamond  is  so  hard  as  to  cut  glass." 
'•        —"Speak  so  as  to  be  heard." 
Conjunction.— "  So  we  were  left  galloping,  Joris  and  I." 

"  —"So  you    have    not    yet   visited    the  Garfield 

memorial?  " 

Than. 

Conjunction.—"  I  would  rather  be  right  than  be  president." 
"  — "  Franklin  was  older  than  Washington." 

"  — "Jacob  loved  Joseph  more    than   any   of   his 

brethren." 
"  — "No  other  fruit  than  grapes  can  be  produced 

with  profit." 
"  — "No  one  else  than  the  initiated  can  appreciate 

such  a  situation." 

[Note. — Than  is  a  subordinateconjunction,  used  always  with 
the  ct)mparative  degree  of  adjectives  and  adverbs,  and 
with  other  and  else.  It  is  followed  by  a  clause,  often  elliptical, 
in  all  cases  except  when  that  clause  should  be  introduced  by 


42  THE    PRINCIPLES    OF 

who.  By  a  mere  blunder,  whom  crept  into  use  instead  of  who, 
and  good  writers  now  follow  the  mistake.  This  has  led  most 
authors  to  regard  than  as  a  preposition  in  cases  like  the 
following.  * 

"John  B.  Gough,  than  whom  no  more  popular  orator  has 
graced  the  platform,  was  a  self-made  man." 

"Washington  and  Franklin,  than  whom  no  wiser  states- 
men have  lived,  were  typical  Americans." 

That. 

Adjective. — "That  steamer  goes  to  Detroit." 

Relative  Pronoun. — "  Ye  that  are  faultless  need  no  reproof." 

Conjunction. — "Ye  would  not  come  unto  me  that  ye  might 

have  life." 
Conjunctive  Adverb. — "  Pupils  should  read  so  that  they  may 

l^e  understood." 

The. 

Adjective. — "The  works  of  Plato." 

Part  of  Adverbial  Phrase. — "The  more  we  study  astronomy, 

the  more  wonderful  seems  the 

universe." 
Part  of  Complex   Adjective. — "That  garment  looks  all  the 

worse  for  the  wear." 

Then, 

Noun. —  "  Till  then,  nor  is  my  boasting  vain, 

Till  then  I  boast  a  Saviour  slain." 
\dverb. — "The  congregation    then  gave    the    'Chautauqua 

salute.'" 
Conjunction. — "If  he  do  not  sign  the  paper,  then  he  certainly 

will  not  be  held." 


ENGLISH    SYNTAX.  43 

There. 

Adverb. — "  Who  goes  there  ?  " 

"       — "  There  was  a  man  of  Adam's  race." 
Interjection. — "  There !  " 

Till. 

Noun.— "The  mone}^  had  been  extracted  from  the  till." 
Verb. — "  The  farmers  till  the  soil." 
Preposition. — "  Can  you  not  stay  till  winter  ?  " 
Conjunctive  Adverb. — "You  may  remain  till  you  have  com- 
pleted the  work." 

Well. 

Noun.— "A  cool  draught  from  the  well." 
Adjective. — "  Are  you  well  ?    You  look  well." 
Adverb. — "All  like  to  visit  a  well  regulated  school." 

"       — "  Well,  what  did  you  think  of  the  painting  ?  " 
Verb. — "The  sparkling  water  wells  up  from  among  the  rocks." 
Interjection.— "  Well !  " 

What. 

Double  Relative.— "I  heard  what  was  said." 
Interrogative  Pronoun. — "  What  troubles  you?  " 
Adjective. — "  What  author  is  most  popular  in  England  ?  " 
Interjection.—"  What !  is  thy  servant  a  dog  ?  " 
Adverb. —    "  '  W^hat  with  my  brats  and  sickly  wife,' 

Quoth  Dick,  '  I'm  almost  tired  of  life.'  "  * 

When. 

Noun. — "Since    when    has    he    been    the    watch-dog    of  the 

treasury?" 
Adverb. — "When  will  the  boat  arrive?" 
Conjunctive  Adverb. — "  Come  when  the  bugle  sounds." 


44  TPiE    rKIXCIPI.ES    OF 

While. 

Noun. — "  It  was  scarcely  worth  the  while  to  put  forth  energy 
in  such  a  cause." 

Verb. — "And  while  away  thy  time  beneath  the  classic  elms." 

Conjunctiye  Adyerb. — "While  Thee  I  seek  Protecting  Power, 
Be  m\^  yain  wishes  stilled." 

Conjunction. — "  The  children  of  the  country  are  blessed  with 
pure  air  and  exercise,  and  consequent  health 
and  yigor;  while  those  of  the  city  often 
pass  their  childhood  without  any  knowledge 
of  these  blessings." 

Which. 

Double  Relatiye — "  We  saw  which  he  took." 

Relatiye    Pronoun. — "The  laws  yv^hich  the   ancient  Romans 

enacted  have  had  an  effect  on  all 

later  nations." 
Interrogatiye  Pronoun. — "Which  do  you  prefer — Romola,  or 

Adam  Bede?" 
Adjective. — "Which  route  to  the  seashore  is  the  most  direct  ?  '' 

Worse. 

Noun. — "  For  better,  for  worse." 

Adjective. — "The  last  days  of  that  man  are  worse  than  the 

first." 
Adverb. — "The  lad  is  doing  worse  since  he  withdrew   himself 

from  the  restrictions  of  home." 

Worth. 

Noun. — "  W^orth  makes  the  man,  and  want  of  it  the  fellow." 
Adjective. — "  The  game  is  not  worth  the  candle." 


EXGLISEI    SYNTAX.  45 


Whether. 


Interrogative  Pronoun, — "Whether  is  greater,  the  gold  or  the 

temple  which  sanclifieth  the  gold  ?" 

Conjunction. — "It  matters  not  whether  you  come  in  summer 

or  in  winter." 

Yet. 

Adverb. — "Washington  yet  lives  in  the  hearts  of  his  grateful 

people." 
Conjunction. — "Though  he  slay  me,  yet  will  I  trust  in  him." 
Part  of  Complex  Adverb. — "Thepartyhas  not  visited  Niagara 

as  vet." 


46  THE    PRINCIPLES  OF 


YIOLATIONvS  OF  THE  PRINCIPLEvS  OF  SYNTAX. 


I.  SUBJECT  OMITTED. 

"  'Twas  Franklin  brought  the  lightning  from  the  clouds." 

"In  the  arctic  winter  night  there  is  often  a  bright  auroral 
light  illuminates  the  northern  sky." 

"There  is  no  wise  man  commences  to  build  a  house  without 
first  consulting  the  cost." 

"  There  is  man}^  a  poor  woman  works  night  and  day  with 
her  needle  to  keep  the  wolf  from  her  door,  but  makes  no  com- 
plaint." 

"There  was  a  tramp  called  at  the  house  to  ask  for  bread." 

"There  is  not  a  sparrow  falls  to  the  ground  without  His 
notice." 

"The  calm  in  which  he  was  born,  and  lasted  so  long,  was 
favorable  to  his  genius." 

II.   WROxNG  CASE. 

"Whom  do  men  say  that  I,  the  Son  of  Man,  am  ?  " 

"They  that  honor  me  I  will  honor,  but  they  that  despise  me 

I  shall  lightly  esteem." 
"  Let  not  he  that  putteth  on  his  armor  boast,  but  he  that 

takethitoff." 
"  He  that  cometh  unto  me  I  will  in  no  wise  cast  out." 
"The  whole  need  not  a  physician,  but  them  that  are  sick.'* 


ENGLISH    SYNTAX.  47 

**  A  general  places  great  confidence  in  veterans  whom  he 
knows  have  been  fearless  under  the  attack  of  the  enemy." 

"The  officers  did  not  report  whom  the  committee  were." 

"  And  whom  did  he  say  it  was  ?  " 

"  Do  you  remember  Mrs.  Smith,  she  that  was  Ellen  Snow  ?  " 

"My  friends  approve  my  decision,  especially  them  who  are 
best  acquainted  with  the  circumstances." 

"Now,  therefore,  we  will  make  a  covenant,  thee  and  me." 

"  Who  do  you  think  hin  to  be  ?  " 

"  I  am  him  who  \'ou  invited." 

"Who  broke  that  window  ?    It  wasn't  me." 

III.   NO  PREDICATE. 

"  The  rules  for  the  use  of  the  comma,  had  they  been  observed, 
many  ambiguous  expressions  would  have  been  definite." 

"  Religion,  although  sneered  at  by  infidels  through  a  life 
time,  they  often  beg  for  its  ministrations  on  the  death-bed." 

IV.   POSSEvSSIVE. 

"Ladies  boots  and  shoes  for  sale  here." 

*  Mens  and  childrens  furnishing  goods." 

*  *  Gen  t's  sitting  room . " 
"Lady's  parlor." 

"Eagle's  nests  are  generally  built  on  cliffs." 
"Shakespeare  and  Milton's  works." 

"The  young  man  took  neither  his  father  nor  his  mother's 
advice." 
"Mr.  Brown's  the  merchant's  store." 
'  Cowper's  the  poet's  fame." 
"  '  Waverly '  was  Scott's  the  poet's  first  work." 
"  Napoleon's  career  as  a  general's  closed  at  Waterloo." 
"Much  depends  upon  you  making  the  attempt." 


48  THE    PRINCIPLES  OF 

"  I  am  opposed  to  my  brother  going  to  Lynn," 

"  We  never  heard  of  him  being  arrested." 

"We  shall  not  insist  on  them  calling  on  the  strangers." 

"Will  you  be  kind  enough  to  call  at  Clark's  the  druggist?" 

V.  WRONG  PLURAL. 

"  Their  healths  suffered  from  the  climate." 
"  For  our  parts,  we  desired  peace  above  all  else." 
"Our  institutions  must  be  preserved  for  descendant's  sakes." 
"Professor   La   Rue   will  give  instructions  in   French  and 
Italian." 

"Ever}'  one  should  occupy  their  own  desk." 

"Any  person  feels  chagrined  at  'giving  themselves  awa^'." 

"No  one  should  laugh  at  their  own  wit." 

VL   REDUNDANT  W^ORDS. 

"His  servants  ye  are  to  whom  ye  obey." 

"My  comrades  shall  want  for  ntUhing  which  I  can  supply." 
"The  soldiers  had  good  reasons  for  their  making  a  forced 
march." 

"Upon  his  returning,  he  found  disaster  and  ruin." 

"Accept  of  my  best  wishes." 

"  Where  are  you  going  to  ?  " 

"  Have  3'ou  got  a  knife  to  lend  ?  " 

"No,  I  have  not  got  any." 

YH.   WRONG    PREPOSITION. 

"  Can  you  not  comply  to  my  request  ?  " 

"  Who  cannot  profit  from  the  couUvSel  of  a  friend  ?  " 

"  Dr.  Phillips  Brooks  will  be  consecrated  during  October." 

"  The  familv  are  now  bereft  from  all  their  friends." 


ENGLISH    SYNTAX.  49 

"  A  report  so  derogatory  of  his  character  is  unjust." 

"  Did  he  die  of  violence  or  by  fever  ?  " 

"  He  was  accused  with  acting  unjustly." 

"All  should  cultivate  a  taste  of  reading  and  study." 

"The  prisoner  is  a  diiferentmanthanhe  was  when  arrested.'* 

VIII.  BAD  COMBINATIONS. 

"  The  cars  were  soon  lost  sight  of." 

"  These  things  must  be  put  a  stop  to." 

"The  needy  should  be  taken  care  of  by  the  rich." 

"  When  will  the  horrors  of  war  be  put  an  end  to  ?  " 

IX.  NON-AGREEMENT. 

"  My  brothers  and  I  have  finished  their  lessons." 
"  Everybody  should  occupy  their  own  desks." 
"A  person  may  make  themselves  happy  without  wealth." 
"In  matters  of  religion,  everyone  must  answer  for  them- 
selves." 
"  If  any  one  has  been  omitted,  let  them  rise." 
"  Either  the  merchant  or  his  clerk  will  give  their  attention 
to  the  matter." 

'  "If  thy  hand  or  thy  foot  offend  thee,  cut  them  off." 
"No  one  in  their  natural  state  are  without  sin." 
"The  animals  of  whom  you  spoke  are  from  Airica." 
"The  people  which  he  saw  were  very  kind." 

X.    IMPROPER    USE    OF  ADJECTIVES    AND  ADVERBS. 

"The  officer  acted  agreeable  to  his  instructions." 
"Agreeable  to  my  promise,  I  make  this  statement  to  the 

court." 
"The  train  had  scarce  started  when  the  boat  arrived  at  the 

dock." 


50  THE    PRINCIPLES    OF 

"The  operation  was  exceeding  well  performed." 

"Grammar  should  be  studied  previous  to  rhetoric." 

"  You  are  looking  badly." 

"  1  have  felt  badly  since  having  la  gripped 

"  You  look  dreadful  sick." 

"  I  did  not  think  he  is  that  old." 

"  I  would  not  give  that  much  for  a  score  of  chances." 

"  There  are  not  that  many  pages  in  the  whole  book." 

"No  person  can  jump  that  high." 

"  Have  you  read  this  far  ?  " 

"  I  don't  hardl}'  think  you  can  accomplish  it  in  an  hour.' 

"  The  man  couldn't  scarcely  step  into  his  carriage." 

XI.   COMPARISON  FAULTY. 

*'  Your  work  is  more  perfect  than  your  brother's." 

"A  more  superior  work  has  not  been  seen." 

"He  is  the  strongest  of  the  two,  but  not  the  wisest." 

"  Iron  is  more  useful  than  an^'  metal." 

"She  is  more  amiable  than  her  other  sisters." 

"Of  all  his  brothers,  he  has  the  most  talent." 

"  Eve  was  the  fairest  of  all  her  daughters." 

"  Which  of  the  three  brothers  is  the  stronger?" 

"Socrates  was  waser  than  any  Athenian  of  his  day." 

"Which  has  read  the  farthest,  you  or  Jane?  " 

"  Have  you  no  other  books  but  novels  ?  " 

"They  intend  to  invite  no  one  else  but  Ned." 

"Nothing  else  but  gold  will  satisfy  him." 

"This  is  no  other  but  the  gate  of  Paradise." 

XII.  NUMBER  FAULTY. 

"Those  sort  of  men  are  not  to  be  trusted." 
"I  like  these  kind  of  oranges." 


ENGLISH    SYNTAX.  51 

**  The  band  has  been  playing  this  two  hours." 
**  Cord  wood  is  cut  four  foot  long." 

XIII.  AGREEMENT  OF  VERBS. 

"If  thou  would  be  healthy,  thou  vshould  be  temperate." 
"Thou,  Lord,  heareth  all  our  words." 
"A  utiion  of  interests  prepare  men  for  friendship." 
"Not  one  of  the  ships  were  fully  freighted." 
"  Ever}'  one  of  the  company  were  fully  delighted." 
"  Mary,  with  her  sisters,  are  studying  French." 
"Three  years'  interest  were  paid  on  the  note." 
"The  construction    of   railroads    and  steamboats  occupy 
many  laborers." 
"  Time  and  tide  waits  for  no  man." 
"  Is  virtue  and  piety  in  all  respects  the  same  ?  " 
"  Man's  happiness  or  misery  depend  largely  upon  himself." 
"  Every  shrub  and  every  flower  proclaim  a  creator." 
"Neither  wealth  nor  poverty  are  without  temptation." 
"Ignorance  and  negligence  has  produced  this  evil." 
"The  court  have,  at  last,  adjourned,  after  a  long  session.' 
"The  club  were  composed  of  young  men  only." 

XIV.  WRONG  VERBS  OR  FORMS  OF  VERBS. 

"The  child  was  laying  at  the  point  of  death." 
"  The  invalid  laid  back  in  her  chair  to  rest." 
"The  foundations  of  the  cathedral  have  been  lain  for  many 
months." 
"  Do  not  allow  the  child  to  lay  upon  the  wet  ground." 
"The  fortunes  of  the  pioneers  have  ebbed  and  flown." 
"The  bread  has  not  yet  raised." 
"  Do  you  think  we  will  be  tardy  ?  " 
"He  shall  not  help  me— I  will  drown  !  " 


52  THE    PRINCIPLES    OF 

"  Many  pupils  come  late  3^esterda^^"  • 

"  Has  the  second  bell  rang  ?  " 
"  The  essay  was  wrote  under  difficulties." 
"  Our  friends  intended  to  have  met  us." 
'*  Ye  will  not  come  vmto  me  that  ye  might  have  life." 
"  It  was  my  purpose  to  have  visited  Paris." 
"  When  will  we  reach  the  city  ?  " 

"  By  that  transaction  we  will  lose  most  of  our  property." 
I 

XV.  DOUBLE  NEGATIVE. 

"  There  cannot  be  nothing  more  insignificant  than  vanity." 
"  It  wouldn't  do  no  good  to  appeal  to  the  government." 
'  He  hasn't  no  influence  w^ith  them." 
"You  can't  buy  no  more  at  that  figure." 

XVI.  GENERAL  TRUTHS. 

**  The  atheist  professed  to  believe  that  there  was  no  God." 

"The  lecturer  proved  that  God  was  unchangeable  and 
eternal." 

"  The  chemist  proved  to  his  class  that  iron  was  softer  than 
steel,  and  that  gold  was  softer  than  copper." 

"We  had  read  in  the  textbook  that  there  was  always  a 
•rainy  season  '  in  the  tropics." 

"The  Englishman  told  his  friend  that  his  own  government 
was  a  limited  monarchy." 

"  They  had  read  that  the  winters  were  long  and  the  summers 
were  short  in  Canada." 

"We  were  told  that  the  Niagara  flcnved  north  and  was  the 
outlet  of  Lake  Erie." 


ENGLISH    SYNTAX.  53 

XVII.  SOMEWHAT  MIXED. 

"  He  should  not  keep  a  horse  that  cannot  ride." 

"  He  involved  a  friend  in  a  troublesome  law-suit  that  had 
long  supported  him." 

"  The  animals  were  conveyed  in  boats  that  were  accustomed 
to  water." 

"  Wanted:  A  boy  to  take  care  of  horses  of  a  religious  turn  of 
mind." 

"Wanted:  A  saddle  horse  for  a  young  lady  that  has  been 
trained  to  rack  and  to  lope,  and  that  will  not  kick." 

XVIII.  MISCELLANEOUS. 

"  I  doubt  if  you  can  accomplish  it." 

"We  cannot  deny  but  he  has  acted  honorably." 

"Who  shall  we  send  in  his  place  ?  " 

"What  kind  of  a  pear  is  that  ?  " 

"  What  sort  of  a  crowd  does  he  prefer  ?  " 

"  I  do  not  doubt  but  the  boat  will  be  in  season." 

"  How  my  head  hurts  me!  " 

"  Doesn't  your  eye  hurt  ?  " 

"  England  insists  upon  every  man  doing  their  duty." 

"The  speaker  declared  that  all  efforts  to  establish  such  a 
rule  had  and  would  fail." 

"I  have  no  objection  to  it  being  done." 

"This  was  owing  to  the  objection  not  being  m^ide  at  the 
time." 

"  Who  do  you  think  him  to  be  ?  " 

"  Whom  do  you  suspect  that  he  is  ^  " 

"What  kind  of  a  fluid  was  made  use  of?" 

"  Come  in  the  room  a  moment." 

"  The  child  must  have  fell  in  the  well." 

"  Where  will  I  meet  you  ?  " 


54  THE  PRINCIPLES  OF 

"  You  walk  like  you  are  lame." 

"  They  looked  like  they  had  laid  there  all  night." 

"  Try  and  reach  the  church  in  season." 

"The  sailor  walked  off  of  the  wharf." 

"  The  apple  tastes  like  it  has  been  frozen." 

"  They  that  honor  me  I  will  honor." 

"I  am  partial  to  those  kind  of  pictures." 

"  My  fingers  is  most  froze." 

"  He  does  not  deserve  the  name  of  a  gentleman." 

•'  Ned  is  a  better  penman  than  any  man  in  his  class." 

"  Will  I  find  you  at  home  this  evening  ?  " 

"Not  one  of  all  them  boys  were  able  to  answer  the  question." 

"  He  don't  succeed  any  better  than  us." 

"  We  didn't  expect  you  to  stay  that  long." 

"  Have  you  read  this  far  in  the  book  ?  " 

"  That  is  all  the  farther  I  have  gone." 

"  He  is  not  that  old." 

"I  have  less  oranges  than  you." 

"  The  child  didn't  put  nothing  in  the  water." 

"The  'Gazette'  has  the  largest  circulation  of  any  paper  in 
the  city." 

"The  'Gazette'  has  a  larger  circulation  than  any  paper  in 
the  city." 

"The  'Gazette,'  of  all  other  papers,  has  the  largest  circula- 
tion." 

"Mr.  Gladstone  has  the  largest  library  of  any  man  in  the 
city." 

"  The  '  Leaflet '  is  the  most  widely  read  of  any  publication." 

"The  man  is  a  better  writer  than  a  singer." 

"  I  intended  to  have  drawn  some  money  yesterday." 

"  I  expect  you  had  a  pleasant  time  in  the  countrv." 

"  That  is  either  a  man  or  a  woman's  voice." 

"The  boy  don't  understand  the  question." 


ENGLISH    SXNTAX.  55 

"The  rose  and  the  violet  both  smell  sweetly." 
**  I  don't  hardly  think  he  will  come  to-night." 
"  Be  real  quick,  if  you  wish  me  to  wait." 
"  All  felt  real  sorry  for  the  child." 
"Those  pupils  are  well  posted." 
**  Your  home  looks  nicely." 
"Let  anybody  guess  this  riddle  if  they  can." 
"  Which  do  you  like  best,  tea  or  cofifee  ?  " 
"  And  he  that  was  dead  sat  up  and  spoke." 
"Two  negatives  destroy  one  another." 
"  The  red  and  white  flag  were  used  as  signals." 
"  I  had  no  though^  but  wtiax  tlie  story  was  true." 
"  What  sort  oi  a  larm  does  the  man  own  ?  " 
"What  kind  of  a  tree  is  that  yonder?" 
"Can  I  leave  my  books  on  your  desk  ?  " 
"  He  says  he  shall  trj^  and  help  you." 
"  The  river  has  raised  three  feet." 
"  Speak  slow^er  and  more  distinct." 

"The  profits  will  be  divided  between  the  five  brothers." 
"  There  was  a  long  interval  between  each  part." 
"  Place  a  comma  between  each  word  of  a  series." 
"  Nothing  else  but  salt  will  preserve  it." 
"  I  will  be  eighteen  next  birthday." 
"  It  isn't  but  a  short  distance." 
"  I  wish  that  I  was  a  musician." 
"  No  one  ever  heard  of  him  running  for  an  office." 
"I  never  realized  l^efore  how  short  life  really  was." 
"  The  children  are  not  learning  much,  I  don't  thin-k.'' 
"  At  what  hotel  are  you  stopping?  " 
"  The  cars  will  not  stop  only  when  the  bell  rings." 
"John  and  Jessie  have  got  married.    Rev.  Winters  performed 
the  ceremony." 


56  THE  PRINCIPLES  OF 

"The    speaker   emphasized    the    truth  that   a  given  body 
weighed  more  at  the  sea-side  than  on  a  mountain." 
"Not  one  of  the  ancients  believed  that  the  earth  v^as  round." 
"Did  not  the  doctor  say  that  the  measles  was  contagious?" 
"  I  have  seen  the  boys  last  week." 
"  Did  3'ou  work  that  example  yet  ?  " 
"  I  can  tell  you  who  he  resembles." 
"  You  had  better  la}'  down  and  try  and  sleep." 
"  Who  did  you  give  the  flowers  to  ?  " 
"Actions  speak  plainer  than  words." 
"I  thoiight  I  would  have  died  of  thirst." 
"  No  laws  are  as  good  as  the  English  laws." 
"  I  intended  to  have  inquired  this  morning." 
"  How  far  did  he  say  it  was  from  Boston  to  New  York  ?  " 
"  Did  you  say  you  were  a  Frenchman  ?  " 
"  The  farmer  has  neither  sold  the  oats  nor  the  com." 
"  Do  you  think  there  is  a  chance  of  me  securing  a  few  shares  ?'* 
"There  will  be  no  advantage  in  us  disputing  any  longer." 
"  Webster  and  Worcester's  dictionary  are  different." 
"There  are  generally  a  good  many  go  from  curiosity." 
"  Tell  me  which  of  the  two  are  the  largest." 
"She  is  older  than  me,  but  I  am  nearW  as  tall  as  she." 
"  Whom  does  he  think  it  could  have  been  ?  " 
"  You  cannot  tell  his  i's  from  his  e's." 
"  What  sort  of  a  farm  do  you  own  ?  " 
"  Can  I  leave  my  coat  in  this  room  ?" 
"  The}'  asked  if  they  could  leave  school  early." 
"  There  was  a  long  interval  between  each  part." 
"  Why  don't  you  turn  1  he  leaves  like  I  do  ?  " 
"  You  walk  like  you  were  lame." 
"  Nothing  else  but  paint  will  preserve  it," 
"  See  if  the  gentlemen  are  ready," 
"  There  were  no  less  than  ten  errors.'* 


ENGLISH    SYNTAX.  57 

*'  I  had  no  idea  but  what  the  story  was  true." 

"  It  is  very  rarely  that  a  person  will  accuse  himself  of  crime." 

*'John  don't  think  it  is  their's." 

"He  had  not  hardly  a  minute  to  spare." 

"She  was  the  youngest  of  two  sisters." 

"  You  are  as  bad  as  them." 

"  Henry  told  you  and  I  to  stay." 

"  You  may  go  with  James  and  I." 

"  Was  there  many  there  ?  " 

*'  You  was  there  yesterday." 

"  It  is  easier  said  than  done." 

'*  We  felt  comfortably  all  night." 

*'  Neither  of  us  three  were  present." 

"  Ralph  is  a  better  penman  than  any  boy  in  his  class." 

*'  Will  we  find  you  at  home  this  evening  ?  " 

"  I  hope  we  will  be  in  time  to  get  good-seats." 

*'  The  bread  would  not  raise  so  near  the  fire." 

•'  The  books  had  probably  laid  there  all  night." 

"  He  was  quite  ill  with  the  grip." 

"What  is  the  distance  between  each  post." 

"  Each  of  the  prisoners  were  allowed  a  separate  cell." 

"He  has  the  most  lucrative  position  of  any  officer  in  the 
city." 

"  Euclid  Avenue  has  the  deepest  lawns  of  an\-  street  in  Cleve- 
land." 

"  I  doubt  if  he  will  arrive  to-daj'." 

"I  doubt  not  but  a  severe  battle  has  been  fought." 

**  We  do  not  doubt  but  that  his  proposition  is  sincere." 

"  No  one  will  deny  but  the  officer  led  his  command  bravely." 

"See  if  you  can  mount  the  bicycle." 

"  No  one  else  but  the  members  of  the  cabinet  was  admitted." 

"  Do  you  think  I  will  be  compelled  to  make  good  the  loss  ?" 

"I  know  I  will  be  too  late  for  the  train." 


58  THE  PRINCIPLES  OF 

"Franklin  proved  that  lightning  and  electricity  were  the 

same." 

"The  pupils  did  not  think  that  the  French  language  was  so 

easy  to  learn." 
"The  ship  is  laying  at  anchor  just  outside  the  harbor." 
"Albany  contained  at  that  time  some  two  or  three  hundred 

houses    and    twenty-five  hundred  inhabitants,   all  standing 

with  their  gable  ends  to  the  street." 
"  Who  is  that  gentleman  ordering  a  drink  with  one  eye  ?" 
"Such    a  course    will  tend    to    eventually    undermine    his 

health." 
"I  soon  discovered  that  it  was  not  her  who  I  supposed  it 

to  be." 

"  We  would  like  an  introduction  to  the  prince." 

"  We  would  be  pleased  to  meet  him  at  the  reception." 

"  Will  we  wear  our  hats  ?  " 

"  Had  you  not  been  taught  that  the  Niagara  flowed  north?" 

"  Between  every  paragraph  you  should  leave  less  than  a  line." 

"  How  different  those  children  are  than  we  expected  !  " 

"  My  sons-in-laws  farms  are  near  the  lake." 

"  Longfellow  is  read  more  than  any  American  poet." 

"  Whittier  of  all  other  poets  is  most  patriotic." 

"  Will  we  continue  to  make  mistakes  ?" 


ENGLISH  SYNTAX.  59 


PUNCTUATION. 


SUGGESTIONS  OF  PRINCIPLES. 

The  Period. 

1.  Declarative  sentences. 

2.  Imperative  sentences. 

3.  Abbreviations. 

4.  Headings  and  signatures. 

5.  Roman  numerals. 

6.  Decimal  points.  '' 

The  Colon. 

1.  A  compound  sentence  any  one  of  whose  clauses  contains 
a  semicolon. 

2  Before  a  direct  quotation  preceded  by  this,  thus,  as 
follows,  etc. 

3.  Before  a  supplementary  clause  with  no  conjunction. 

4.  Complimentary  address. 

The  Semicolon. 

1.  A  compound  sentence  any  one  of  whose  clauses  contains 
a  comma. 

2.  Successive  phrases  or  clauses  remotely  connected,  having 
no  conjunction. 

3.  Before  as,  namely,  etc.,  introducing  examples. 

The  Comma. 

1    Members  of  compound  sentences  closely  connected. 


60  THE  PRINCIPLES  OF 

2.  Dependent  clauses,  unless  intimately  connected. 

3.  Words  or  phrases  in  pairs. 

4.  Contrasted  words,  phrases  or  clauses. 

5.  Introductory  or  independent  adverbs. 

6.  Parenthetical  or  intermediate  expressions. 

7.  Inverted  elements. 

8.  Series  of  words,  phrases  or  clauses. 

9.  Appositives,  unless  restrictive. 

10.  Case  absolute  with  a  participle. 

11.  Case  absolute  by  address. 

12.  Relative  clauses  not  restrictive. 

13.  Phrases  not  restrictive. 

14.  Ellipsis  of  verb. 

15.  Direct  quotations  not  formally  introduced. 

16.  Long,  involved  subject  separated  from  its  predicate. 

The  Interroj^ation  Point. 

1.   Every  question. 

The  Exclamation  Point. 

1.   Every  exclamatory  word,  phrase  or  clause. 

The  Parenthesis. 

1.   Unnecessary  words,  phrases  or  clauses  used  in  a  sentence. 

The  Brackets. 

1.  Words  to  be  supplied. 

2.  Words  supplied  by  another. 

3.  Words  to  define  or  to  correct. 

The  Dash. 

1.  Instead  of  the  parenthesis. 

2.  Sudden  stop  or  change  of  expression. 

3.  Omissions. 

4.  Appositives. 

5.  Case  absolute  by  pleonasm. 


ENGLISH   SYNTAX.  61 

The  Quotation  Marks 

1.  Words  quoted  from  another. 

2.  A  quotation  within  a  quotation.     (Single  marks.) 

The  Apostrophe. 

1.  Omission  of  a  letter  or  letters. 

2.  Sign  of  possessive  case. 

3.  Plural  of  letters,  figures,  etc. 

The  Hyphen. 

1.  Compound  words. 

2.  Syllabification. 

3.  Division  of  a  word  at  the  end  of  a  line. 


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VB  36592 


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EDIKI 
DEPT. 


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